What Is the Difference Between a College and a University for 2025?

by Imed Bouchrika, Phd

Co-Founder and Chief Data Scientist

Share

Higher education is interchangeably used with college or university enrollment, which confuses many students (Lee, 2017). Although it is an umbrella term pertaining to postsecondary education, it blurs the line between colleges and universities. And these institutions have specific differences. As such, many learners ask what distinguishes one from the other.

It is with the view of making a clear distinction between the two that this article is undertaken: to allow would-be higher education seekers to clearly differentiate between the two. In the end, they should be able to determine which choice is best for their situation or needs.

Difference Between College and University Table of Contents

1. Higher Education at a Glance
2. What Are Universities?
3. What Are Colleges?
4. Other Types of Institutions of Higher Learning
5. Pros and Cons
6. How are universities adapting to sustainability trends in 2025?
7. How do accreditation and institutional rankings impact decision-making?
8. Is an affordable online bachelor's degree a credible pathway to success?
9. How can an online accelerated bachelor’s degree enhance my foundational skills?
10. Should I consider online accelerated programs to fast-track my career?
11. Are accelerated doctoral pathways a strategic advantage?
12. Are online certificate programs a strategic supplement to traditional degrees?
13. How do career outcomes and ROI influence higher education choices?

Popular Online Degree Programs for 2025

IT Management

Bachelor’s in IT management online programs provides you with innovative technical and analytical, leadership, team management, and project management skills necessary for the field. They also enable you to train and acquire business skills that most employers look for. Here, you will dig deeper into the more complex issues of IT systems analysis and design, asset management, data center configuration, and business-focused IT business administration and management concepts.

Human Behavior

An online bachelor’s program in behavioral psychology can be your stepping stone to study human behaviors and successful techniques that form healthier and more productive behaviors. With this degree, you can be eligible for entry-level roles, such as a psychiatric aid, lab assistant, healthcare administrator, health educator, or community service coordinator. Depending on your goals, you may go on to take a master’s or doctorate degree.

Secondary Education

A bachelor’s degree in secondary education is developed to provide you with the tools and information you will need to be an effective educator to young people in the classroom. You will learn the most recent learning theories and approaches in education, know how to create engaging lesson plans, foster learning with various types of students, and facilitate a classroom efficiently. The three major types of secondary education bachelor’s programs are a Bachelor of Education (BEd), a Bachelor of Arts (BA), and a Bachelor of Science (BS).

Epidemiology

An online master’s in epidemiology is the best way for public health experts to improve their skills in analysis, research, and big-picture thinking. Epidemiology studies focus on the sciences. Classes may involve research courses and how to perform the most in-depth and ethical studies. This education will make you qualify for roles offering higher salaries, more leadership, and more promotion opportunities.

Nursing Informatics

Nursing informatics integrates nursing science, communications, data science, and computer science to enhance and manage knowledge in the field. This integration is shaped to refine patient care and healthcare services. This education will prepare you for leadership positions, such as data analysts, clinical information systems specialists, health information specialists, RNs, and medical and health services managers.

1. Higher Education at a Glance

Choosing which school to attend after high school is often one of the first big decisions a student can make, along with picking a program upon distinguishing degrees from majors. Due to higher education having a big influence on their career path, attending postsecondary education can often become overwhelming that most students do not even complete their chosen programs. Data published in 2018 from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES. 2018) shows that in the period 1996 to 2010, less than half of all students who enter college do not graduate. In fact, the number of students who are able to graduate is much lower nowadays compared to those during the 1970s (Bound et al., 2010). It is even worse for those in poverty, where only about 1 in 10 complete their postsecondary education (St-Esprit, 2019).

Several factors influence this phenomenon. On the one hand, the near-prohibitive cost of college is an obvious reason why some students are instead looking for more affordable alternatives or taking a two-year course instead of a full bachelor’s degree. To put this into perspective, even a public university with some measure of state funding can set students back by almost $20,000 for a four-year program (NCES, 2018). Two other major factors include job and career prospects after graduation, which are great incentives for students to find a skill that can be monetized quickly in order to justify the cost of higher education.

Useful Enrollment Statistics

While the rate of enrollment is certainly up year after year and the rate of graduation has improved since a decade ago, only 6 out of 10 students graduate after six years. These years represent a more realistic view of time and money for students (Peller, 2019), in contrast to a nominal four-year program.

The reason for this is simple. Postsecondary educational institutions have failed to adapt to the changing needs of students (Voight, 2019), where the student body is more diverse (both ethnically and financially).

Here are interesting facts and their outcomes taken from NCES on data concerning the diversity of college students in the U.S.:

• 61% (about 8,637,000) of male students versus 72% (11,291,000) of female students enrolled in college immediately after completing high school (NCES, 2017).
• As for ethnicity, Asians had the most enrollees, with 87% of them entering college right after high school graduation (NCES, 2017).
• They’re followed by non-Hispanic whites (69%), Hispanic (67%), and African-American (58%) (NCES, 2017).
• 10% of students in public postsecondary educational institutions (country average) were over 25 years old (NCES, 2017).
• The country average for private, not-for-profit colleges on the same demographic is 13% (NCES, 2017).
• For for-profit colleges, 39% are over the age of 25 (NCES, 2017).

Private Vs. Public

The last four years have seen 20 nonprofit private colleges shut down because of the costs involved in running higher education institutions (Jaschik, 2019). This, however, is a far cry from the prediction that half of all postsecondary institutions in the United States will close in the next decade (Christensen, 2017).

At the moment, there are still over a thousand nonprofit and for-profit private schools in the country. With this plethora of choices, the only thing holding students back is the cost difference between public and private universities. For those trying to cut costs, however, the choice is clear: public universities, which receive some state funding (among others), are more affordable. The published annual costs of a four-year program at a public university, for example, is about $10,230 in the academic year of 2018-2019 (Hess, 2019a). This amount is significantly lower than the average annual tuition at private four-year institutions, which amounted to $35,380 for the same period (Hess, 2019b). Moreover, the number of public schools in the US outnumbers private ones, thus learners have more options.

While state funding has somewhat declined in the last few years, donations and other endowments have stepped up proportionally to help defray costs. They also offer lower tuition fees for students who live in the state where the public university is in. The reason is that in-state students indirectly support public universities by paying their state taxes (Kantrowitz, 2020).

Apart from choosing from a public or a private institution, students also have a choice whether to look for a college or a university (or even other types), which we will be discussing below.

2. What Are Universities?

When students speak of college, most people think of universities. Universities are primary degree-granting institutions in a higher education system and normally the largest in that system. They offer every undergraduate degree that a college can, but also offer graduate programs, operate other specialized departments like a medical or law school, and generate scientific and social research. In general, the larger size of a university allows it to offer a more diverse academic profile than other types.

While there are a few slight differences among U.S. states in terms of the elements that make a university, in general, they should follow four criteria (TESU, 2016):

• Graduate studies. A university should have a separate organization and faculty for graduate programs in at least three different professional fields.
• Undergraduate studies. Like any college, a university should also offer a separate undergraduate study system in a wide range of academic subjects.
• Resources. A university should be able to support its programs, whether undergraduate or graduate, and run the facilities and equipment they need.
• Accreditation. It should be licensed, registered, and in some cases incorporated within the state.

Some educators also use the term “national college" or “national university" to refer to institutions of this type. This is a reference to the prestige of a university, as graduates of this school can be recognized anywhere in the country—even the world.

Programs

Universities invariably offer the widest range of academic programs, often breaking these fields into several “colleges" or “faculties" in their campus or in their system (such as a liberal arts colleges for humanities or a discrete STEM school—a notable example is Harvard University). While there are some exceptions, universities also have a greater focus on research than their smaller counterparts, which do not have the funding, staff, or advanced education to further one. All universities also offer advanced programs up to the doctoral level.

Examples

In general, the biggest higher education institutions in the United States are universities, but this does not necessarily mean the physical size. An example is Marymount California University, which had less than 1,000 students as of 2016 data (Ross, 2018).

The most famous of U.S. universities (and the most expensive), however, are probably the so-called “Ivy League" schools. Ivy League schools constitute the highest class among American universities, a stature that entails inherent social, political, and economic benefits for its alumni (Miller et al., 2015). These are eight universities that are generally accepted as among the most prestigious of their kind, some with a history going back as far as the 17th century. Their moniker came from the athletic collegiate conference that grouped them together in 1954, though the name is now used for far more than just sports (Celletti, 2018).

That said, other universities outrank Ivy League schools in certain rankings. For example, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Stanford University both outrank the top Ivy League, Yale University, in terms of SAT ranges (Niche.com, 2020).

Cost Analysis

There is no doubt that top-tier U.S. universities are pricey, but this does not always mean that all universities should be just as expensive. In the upper range, the most expensive is—as you can guess—an Ivy League school, Columbia University, which costs an average of $61,850 for a four-year program (Kerr, 2019). At the other end of the spectrum, however, is the University of Washington, which has a sticker price of $9,765 for the same (Best Value Schools, 2020).

3. What Are Colleges?

On the other hand, a college is a smaller institution. Therefore, colleges are more inclined to offer associate’s degrees (2-year programs) and bachelor’s degrees (4-year degrees) because of resource constraints, especially funding and staffing. Colleges are an umbrella term for many types of postsecondary learning institutions, including community colleges and junior colleges, which are concerned with offering associate’s degrees.

Many community and junior colleges now also offer full bachelor’s degrees, however. In fact, community colleges have awarded about over 23,000 such degrees in 2017 (Andre, 2020).

In terms of prestige, colleges have nowhere near the level of clout as a university. This is why they are also called regional colleges to distinguish them from national universities. It also refers to the colleges incentivizing local enrollment, as opposed to universities that can draw students from all over the country.

Programs

Colleges, as mentioned, offer bachelor’s degrees, which take three to four years to complete. In the United States, bachelor’s degrees typically involve four years of study. Associate’s degrees, on the other hand, take only two years. This makes them more attractive to people who want to gain immediate employment after college, as colleges often confer Associate of Applied Science degrees upon completion. These are programs designed around fields like hospitality, electrical, accounting, and others. But there are also bachelor’s degree for these, like in hospitality. There are even hospitality management degree online offerings.

Otherwise, for those who want to continue their associate’s degrees to a bachelor’s after two to three years of additional schooling, the college confers an Associate of Arts or Associate of Science degree for fields like math, science, or psychology.

Rarely, some colleges offer more advanced degrees, blurring the line between a college and a university. These include distinguished colleges like St. Joseph’s College in New York, which offers graduate studies in business and education. Most of these can already be considered a university (see above criteria) but rather choose to remain a college in name due to tradition or to avoid confusion.

Examples

There is no shortage of great undergraduate and regional colleges in the U.S. One such is Santa Monica College in California. SMC sends more students to four-year universities in California than any other college in the state (Peabody, 2001), and boasts of esteemed alumni, such as James Dean and Dustin Hoffman. Another is Houston Community College, which was restructured as a multi-college system in 1992 to accommodate a diverse academic program.

Cost Analysis

Research from College Board (2020) shows that four-year studies in public colleges average at $10,440 per year, while two-year community colleges are at $3,730 annually, for in-state students. This covers only tuition, without room and board, however. All in all, this represents around a 3% jump from the sticker prices last academic year.

4. Other Types of Institutions of Higher Learning

Apart from a university and a college, there are several subtypes of postsecondary education institutions. Some experts, however, often classify the following two as a type of college, but as there are more than a few of them they would likely need their own section.

To wit, there are two major types of institutions that are better categorized on their own: polytechnic institutions and trade schools.

Polytechnics

Also called institutes of technology or polytechnic university/college, polytechnic schools are institutions that are geared toward STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields. These schools offer a wide variety of studies in these fields, from associate’s (2 years), bachelor’s (4 years), master’s (2 years), and doctor’s (6 years).

Note that many universities also offer STEM studies—for example, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. While it is known for STEM, MIT is also a private university with a broad range of disciplines and research.

In many European countries, there are distinctions between polytechnic schools and institutes of technology. For example, in Ireland, an institute of technology is a regional or a technical college, instead of an institution equivalent to a university in the United States (K12 Academics, 2020).

Trade Schools

These institutions go by a bevy of names, but they are mostly referred to as technical schools, vocational schools, or career colleges. These are centers of learning that offer job-oriented training so graduates can immediately apply a trade skill to a particular occupation. These fields include information technology, business and management, and HVAC repair. A cosmetology major is also one of the most popular options.

Trade schools often award certificates and/or diplomas that take less time than a traditional university education. For example, some programs award a certificate that takes anywhere from a few months of study to a year, while diplomas are similar to an associate’s degree. Some institutions, however, offer programs that are equivalent to bachelor’s and master’s degrees, depending on the field of study.

Students who want to train for direct entry into a workforce without the time commitment for a university or a four-year program can opt to enroll in a trade school. These schools fast-track students into certain careers without course requirements. They are also generally more affordable, given the short span of time it takes to obtain a certificate or a diploma. And with the increasing cost of college, people have turned to trade schools to further or diversify their skill sets.

5. Pros and Cons

When choosing between a college and a university, the decision should not be based on the length of the program or the cost alone. Here are other important details any student should look into before committing to either.

Size

Universities are generally larger (not just physically) than colleges and offer a wider range of courses. Campuses also abound with more student service facilities. The sheer size of a university can intimidate some students, though, but this can be balanced with the variety of options open to them, from clubs, activities, performances, sports, and more. Networking for a career path, later on, is also encouraged in universities. The downside is the impersonal approach of these schools, as their bigger size often means fewer professors per student, leading to cramped lecture halls and detached, impersonal teachers.

On the other hand, as colleges are smaller, they are usually cozier, with students and faculty alike knowing each other. Furthermore, colleges are specifically meant to accommodate in-state or in-district students, which can mean less outlay for room and board. The disadvantage, however, is that students are often in want of academic and extracurricular activities and limited programs and majors.

Breadth of academic programs

The biggest difference is that universities offer more advanced degrees; colleges offer mostly associate’s, some bachelor’s, and rarely an advanced degree.

To be more specific, the broad selection of disciplines in a university means students will have no shortage of options when pursuing an academic passion. Universities typically break down their classes into several schools or colleges, and while colleges do this also, the latter tends to do it on a smaller scale.

Universities also offer accelerated or automatic admission to postgraduate programs in various fields, such as the medical or legal sectors.

An upside to a university is that students can also intern or be instructed by PhD students, not just teachers, for a broader, more complete instructional experience. In addition, because universities tend to attract research (more on this below) grants, these institutions invariably employ the top talent in their fields, leading to a generally better quality of education.

Financial aid

Colleges and universities alike offer scholarships and financial aid, but the financial assistance available to students varies wildly. In general, public schools have more funding ready for deserving students, while private institutions rely on other sources, such as subsidies and donations from foundations and elsewhere.

In addition, public colleges and universities also offer a much lower rate for students in the same geographical region (normally the same state, even the same district for smaller colleges). For private universities, though, the tuition is generally the same for everybody else, whether the student is from the same state or country or otherwise. There are also financial aid programs that cover both public and private institutions; for instance, Title IV schools.

When choosing between any college or university, it is always a wise idea to check whether the scholarship, grant, or financial aid can apply to that particular school.

Research

Colleges do not typically run research; they are more concerned with undergraduate education. There is certainly some research done in college, but these are smaller in scale and rarer to find, simply because a professor’s job in a college is to teach, not to generate research.

On the other hand, universities thrive on research first and foremost, as the employment of professors in these institutions is predicated on their generation of research and the inclusion of graduate and undergraduate students in the process. Universities use this research to attract funding, whether state or federal. This gives universities much more clout and resources to support more research and student projects, leading to more funding, and so on.

6. How are universities adapting to sustainability trends in 2025?

Universities are increasingly embracing sustainability as a core principle, both in terms of education and campus operations. In 2025, several sustainability trends are shaping the future of higher education:

• Green Campus Initiatives: Many universities are implementing energy-efficient buildings, renewable energy sources, and waste reduction programs. This includes initiatives such as solar panels, energy-efficient lighting, and recycling programs to reduce their carbon footprint.
• Sustainable Curriculum: Institutions are incorporating sustainability topics into their courses across various disciplines. This prepares students to tackle environmental challenges and fosters a deeper understanding of global sustainability issues.
• Research and Innovation: Universities are becoming hubs for sustainability-related research, focusing on topics like clean energy, environmental conservation, and climate change mitigation. These research initiatives attract funding and partnerships with governments and industries.
• Sustainable Transportation: To reduce emissions, universities are encouraging the use of eco-friendly transportation methods, including bike-sharing programs, electric vehicle charging stations, and improved public transportation access.

How do accreditation and institutional rankings impact decision-making?

Accreditation and institutional rankings serve as key indicators of academic quality and credibility. Recognized accreditation ensures that an institution meets established educational standards, which is critical for transferability of credits and recognition of degrees by employers. Meanwhile, rankings can reflect elements such as faculty expertise, research output, and overall student satisfaction, offering valuable benchmarks when comparing educational options. Evaluating these factors helps students align their academic and career goals with institutions that best meet those rigorous standards, including programs recognized for innovative curriculum and flexibility, like the fastest masters degree.

Is an affordable online bachelor's degree a credible pathway to success?

Evaluating cost-effective education options is essential when balancing academic quality with financial feasibility. Many online programs maintain high academic standards while reducing expenses typically associated with traditional campuses. Choosing a flexible, affordable online pathway can allow students to access rigorous curricula, supportive digital resources, and solid accreditation records that align with long-term career goals. Reviewing options such as the least expensive bachelor's degree can help identify value-driven opportunities that ensure both educational excellence and sustainable financial investment.

How can an online accelerated bachelor’s degree enhance my foundational skills?

Online accelerated bachelor’s degrees offer a streamlined pathway to building essential competencies without compromising academic rigor. These programs integrate a focused curriculum with advanced digital tools to deliver core knowledge more efficiently, enabling students to quickly transition from theoretical learning to practical application. They are particularly attractive for individuals seeking a balance between rapid skill acquisition and the flexibility required by professional commitments. A careful evaluation of program design, faculty expertise, and support services is vital to ensure that the accelerated pace translates into strong foundational proficiency. For a curated selection of these innovative offerings, please refer to our guide on fast bachelor degrees.

Should I consider online accelerated programs to fast-track my career?

Exploring online accelerated programs offers a pathway for working professionals aiming to obtain their credentials in a reduced timeframe without compromising the quality of education. These programs are designed to integrate modern digital learning methods—combining flexibility and efficiency—to meet the evolving demands of today’s workforce. Leveraging innovative instructional techniques and condensed curricula, accelerated options enable students to quickly translate academic achievements into practical skills, granting them a competitive edge. In addition, institutions that offer accelerated degree programs for working adults often provide tailored support services specifically for nontraditional learners, ensuring that the challenges of balancing work and studies are minimized. This evolving model of higher education is increasingly recognized for its role in not only reducing the time and financial burden of obtaining a degree but also in aligning academic outcomes with industry needs.

Are accelerated doctoral pathways a strategic advantage?

Accelerated doctoral pathways offer a distinctive opportunity for professionals seeking to leverage advanced credentials within a condensed timeframe. These innovative programs are designed to balance rigorous academic requirements with flexible scheduling, catering to individuals who aim to enhance their expertise without the extended commitment typical of traditional doctoral studies. Institutions are increasingly recognizing the need to fast-track research and leadership competencies, making such streamlined options an attractive alternative. In this context, prospective candidates may consider exploring one year doctoral programs to attain high-level qualifications swiftly while maintaining academic integrity and career momentum.

Are online certificate programs a strategic supplement to traditional degrees?

Online certificate programs offer efficient, targeted training that addresses specific industry needs while complementing traditional education. They equip professionals with niche skills and enhance career agility without the prolonged time commitment of conventional degree paths. Many employers now recognize these credentials as evidence of a commitment to continuous learning and practical expertise. For professionals seeking a rapid skills upgrade to bolster their resumes, exploring the best online certificate programs can provide a competitive edge in evolving job markets.

How do career outcomes and ROI influence higher education choices?

Evaluating long-term career outcomes and return on investment (ROI) is key when comparing higher education pathways. This approach involves analyzing employment rates, starting salaries, and industry-specific earning potential, which can vary significantly between institutions and program types. It is essential for prospective students to assess factors such as career services, alumni networks, and local market demands to determine the realistic economic value of their chosen educational investment.

In addition, exploring accelerated or focused educational options—like short degree programs that pay well—can complement traditional pathways by offering a quicker entry into the workforce with competitive earnings. Integrating data-driven insights alongside program quality and institutional support mechanisms empowers students to make informed decisions tailored to their career ambitions while balancing cost and potential lifetime benefits.

The Bottom Line

There is a world of differences between a college and a university, and the points above are simply more ostensible. Cultural fit is one of the more important as well, though this factor can be hard to quantify.

It behooves the student to perform due diligence when choosing a school. Though it can be tempting to condense the choice of a school to mere cost analysis, the factors stated above are all crucial elements and may even be more important in the long term. Conversely, choosing a postsecondary institution based on prestige alone is just as foolhardy, as the best university in the world will avail the students nothing if it is a bad fit for them.

Key Insights

• Difference Between College and University: Colleges are smaller institutions focused on undergraduate education, often offering associate's and bachelor's degrees. Universities are larger, offering a wider range of undergraduate and graduate programs, including doctoral degrees, and typically engage in more research activities.
• Enrollment and Graduation Rates: Less than half of all students who enter college graduate, with financial constraints and job prospects being major factors. In 2019, only 6 out of 10 students graduated after six years.
• Public vs. Private Institutions: Public universities are generally more affordable due to state funding and offer lower tuition for in-state students. Private institutions are more expensive, with fewer subsidies but often more financial aid options from donations and endowments.
• Types of Higher Education Institutions: Besides colleges and universities, there are polytechnic institutions focused on STEM fields and trade schools offering job-oriented training for specific occupations.
• Cost of Education: The cost of attending higher education institutions varies widely, with public colleges averaging $10,440 per year for four-year programs and $3,730 per year for two-year community colleges. Private four-year institutions can cost around $35,380 annually.
• Research and Resources: Universities focus heavily on research, attracting funding and employing top talent, which enhances the quality of education and provides more opportunities for student projects and research involvement.

FAQ

1. What is the primary difference between a college and a university? Colleges are smaller institutions primarily focused on undergraduate education, offering associate's and bachelor's degrees. Universities are larger institutions that offer a wider range of undergraduate and graduate programs, including doctoral degrees, and typically engage in extensive research activities.
2. Why do less than half of college students graduate? Financial constraints and limited job prospects after graduation are major factors contributing to low graduation rates. Many students also struggle to balance the cost of education with their personal and academic lives.
3. How do public and private institutions differ in terms of cost? Public universities are generally more affordable due to state funding and offer lower tuition rates for in-state students. Private institutions are more expensive but often provide more financial aid options through donations and endowments.
4. What are polytechnic institutions and trade schools? Polytechnic institutions focus on STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields and offer a range of programs from associate's to doctoral degrees. Trade schools, also known as technical or vocational schools, provide job-oriented training for specific occupations, offering certificates and diplomas.
5. How much does it cost to attend a public college versus a private college? Public colleges average $10,440 per year for four-year programs and $3,730 per year for two-year community colleges. Private four-year institutions can cost around $35,380 annually.
6. What is the role of research in universities compared to colleges? Universities focus heavily on research, attracting funding and employing top talent, which enhances the quality of education and provides more opportunities for student projects and research involvement. Colleges, on the other hand, are primarily focused on undergraduate education and conduct less research.
7. What financial aid options are available for students? Both public and private institutions offer scholarships and financial aid, but the availability and amount can vary. Public institutions often have more funding for in-state students, while private institutions rely on donations and endowments for financial aid. It is important to check whether a specific scholarship or grant applies to the institution you are interested in.
8. What factors should students consider when choosing between a college and a university? Students should consider factors such as the size of the institution, the breadth of academic programs, financial aid options, research opportunities, and cultural fit. It is important to choose a school that aligns with their academic and personal goals, rather than basing the decision solely on cost or prestige.

References:

1. Andre, L. (2020). 12 interesting college trends in 2020/2021: Big data, funding & distance learning. FinancesOnline.
2. Best Value Schools. (2020). Most affordable universities in America 2020. BestValueSchools.com.
3. Bound, J., Lovenheim, M.F., & Sarah Turner, S. (2010). Why have college completion rates declined? An analysis of changing student preparation and collegiate resources. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2 (3), 129-157. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/app.2.3.129
4. Bozeman, B., & Boardman, C. (2013). Academic faculty in university research centers: Neither capitalism’s slaves nor teaching fugitives. The Journal Of Higher Education, 84 (1), 88-120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2013.11777279
5. Celletti, E.N. (2018). What is an Ivy League school? Probably not what you think. Niche.com.
6. Christensen, C. (2017, November 15). Innovation + disruption symposium on higher education. CNBC.
7. CollegeBoard (2020). Average published charges, 2018-19 and 2019-20. Trends in Higher Education. New York, NY: CollegeBoard.
8. Hess, A. (2019, April 24). Tuition at public universities is $10,230 a year on average—here’s how much students actually pay. CNBC.
9. Hess, A. (2019, March 18). Average tuition at private colleges is $35,830 a year—but here’s how much students actually pay. CNBC.
10. Jaschik, S. (2019, June 13). Private nonprofit college closures, 2016-present. Inside Higher Ed.
11. K12 Academics (2020). Institutes of Technology vs. Polytechnics. K12Academics.com.
12. Kantrowitz, M. (2020). State residency requirements for in-state tuition. Savingforcollege.com.
13. Kerr, E. (2019, September 9). 10 Most, Least Expensive Private Colleges. U.S. News.
14. Lee, C. (2017, March 11). College vs. University: how they differ & how to choose between them. Trade Schools, Colleges, and Universities.
15. Miller, D., Xu, X., & Mehrotra, V. (2015). When is human capital a valuable resource? The performance effects of Ivy league selection among celebrated CEOs. Strategic Management Journal, 36 (6), 930-944. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2251
16. NCES (2017). Back to school statistics. Fast Facts. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
17. NCES (2017). Immediate College Enrollment Rate. The Condition of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
18. NCES (2018). Table 326.10, 330.10. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
19. Niche.com. (2020). 2020 Best Colleges in America. Niche.com.
20. Peabody, Z. (2001, July 2). Colleges shun funds to boost transfer rates. LA Times.
21. Peller, J. (2019). Personal interview. NPR.org.
22. Ross, K.M. (2018, February 14). College vs. university in the U.S.: What’s the difference? U.S. News.
23. St-Esprit, M. (2019, March 6). The Stigma of Choosing Trade School Over College. The Atlantic.
24. Thomas Edison State University. (2016). College vs. University: What’s the Difference? Trenton, NJ: Thoman Edison State University.
25. Voight, M. (2019). Personal interview. NPR.org.
26. Zapata, I.T. (2019). University research centres: Organizational structures and performance. Journal of Technology Management & Innovation, 14 (3), 29-42. https://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-27242019000300023