Introduction to Social Exchange Theory in Social Work With Examples for 2025

Co-Founder and Chief Data Scientist

Practicing social work can feel overwhelming when trying to grasp different theories and how to use them in real-life scenarios. As a student, you might struggle to see how theories fit into the daily work of a social worker.

I have over ten years of expertise in career planning. I have researched credible data to create this guide. In 2024, the U.S. has over 255,843 social workers. Understanding social exchange theory can help you stand out in this field. This article will explain the theory in simple terms and provide clear examples. You’ll learn how this theory can make your job easier and more effective. Reading this article will give you practical knowledge and tools to use in your social work studies and future career.

Key Things You Should Know About Social Exchange Theory

The social exchange theory explains human relationships in terms of rewards and costs.
It was developed in 1958 by sociologist George Homans.
Applications include case management, community outreach programs, and counseling sessions.
Criticisms include an overemphasis on rationality and a simplistic view of relationships.
Addressing limitations involves incorporating emotions, cultural sensitivity, and balancing power dynamics.

What is the social exchange theory in social work?
What are the main principles of social exchange theory?
Who developed social exchange theory, and what is its historical background?
How can social exchange theory be applied in case management?
What are some examples of social exchange theory in action within social work?
How does social exchange theory impact client-social worker relationships?
How can the social exchange theory enhance community outreach programs?
What role does cultural competency play in applying social exchange theory?
How does social exchange theory inform professional development in social work?
How can social exchange theory advance career opportunities in social work?
How can social exchange theory influence career planning and salary expectations?
What does current research reveal about the impact of social exchange theory on practice?
How can social exchange theory improve supervision and mentoring in social work?
How can technology enhance the application of social exchange theory in social work?
How can we measure the effectiveness of social exchange theory interventions in social work?
What are the future directions for social exchange theory in social work?
What are the ethical considerations when applying social exchange theory with clients?
What are the main criticisms of the social exchange theory?
How do social workers address the limitations of the social exchange theory?
How does social exchange theory influence policy-making in social work?
How to integrate social exchange theory into social work curricula
Other Things You Should Know About the Social Exchange Theory in Social Work

What is the social exchange theory in social work?

Social exchange theory in social work is a framework used to understand human interactions and relationships. It is based on the idea that people engage in social relationships by weighing the costs and benefits to maximize their personal gain. Here's a simple breakdown of how the social exchange theory works:

Costs: These are the negatives or drawbacks of a relationship or interaction, like time, effort, or emotional strain.
Benefits: These are the positives or rewards, such as support, friendship, or resources.

In social work, practitioners use this theory to analyze and guide client interactions. They look at what clients give and receive in their relationships, aiming to help them improve their social exchanges. This can involve helping clients recognize unhealthy relationships where the costs outweigh the benefits and encouraging them to build more balanced, rewarding connections. By understanding social exchange theory, social workers can better understand their clients' motivations and behaviors, making their support more effective.

What are the main principles of social exchange theory?

The main principles of social exchange theory include:

Reward and Cost Balance: Individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs in their relationships and interactions.
Reciprocity: There is an expectation that benefits given in a relationship will be returned in some form, creating a balance.
Comparison Levels: Individuals evaluate their relationships based on past experiences and expectations, which helps them determine if the current relationship meets their standards (Comparison Level or CL).
Comparison of Alternatives: People assess the value of their current relationships against potential alternatives (Comparison Level for Alternatives or CLalt) to decide if they should stay in or leave the relationship.
Rational Choice: Individuals make decisions in social interactions based on logical calculations of the potential rewards and costs.
Equity: Fairness and balance in distributing rewards and costs between individuals are crucial for maintaining healthy relationships.
Dependence: The extent to which an individual relies on a relationship for rewards influences their power and commitment within the relationship.
Satisfaction and Stability: Relationships are likely more stable and satisfying when the rewards outweigh the costs, meet the comparison levels, and have fewer attractive alternatives.

You can see how social exchange theory pans out during more advanced level programs, like online PhD programs in applied behavior analysis.

Who developed social exchange theory, and what is its historical background?

Sociologist George Homans developed the social exchange theory in the mid-20th century. Homans studied human behavior, focusing on how people interacted in social situations. He observed that individuals engage in relationships to maximize rewards and minimize costs.

Homans' theory was influenced by earlier works in sociology and economics, including behaviorism and rational choice theory. He believed that social behavior could be explained through the lens of exchange, similar to economic transactions.

The historical background of social exchange theory can be traced back to classical sociology theories, which focused on understanding the structure and dynamics of society. Homans's work represented a shift towards a more individual-focused perspective, emphasizing the role of individual actions and motivations in shaping social relationships. His theory challenged traditional views of social behavior as purely altruistic or selfless, highlighting the importance of self-interest and rational decision-making in social interactions.

Social exchange theory has been applied across various fields, including sociology, psychology, economics, and organizational behavior. It provides insights into human behavior in social contexts, explaining why individuals engage in certain actions or maintain particular relationships. The theory remains influential in understanding interpersonal dynamics and decision-making processes in diverse social settings.

How can social exchange theory be applied in case management?

The social exchange theory can be applied in case management, from assessing relations to developing a support network. Here are ways you can use it for each case:

Assessing Relationships: Social workers can evaluate a client's relationships by identifying the rewards and costs involved. This helps determine which relationships are beneficial and which are harmful.
Building Trust: Social workers can establish trust with clients by understanding reciprocity. They can ensure that the help they give will lead to a positive response from the client.
Improving Client Decisions: Clients can learn to make better choices by understanding the balance of rewards and costs. Social workers can guide them to seek relationships and situations where the rewards outweigh the costs.
Conflict Resolution: Social workers can mediate conflicts by focusing on equity and fairness. They can help each party understand the other's perspective and find a fair compromise.
Enhancing Support Networks: Social workers can assist clients in developing stronger support systems. By encouraging mutually beneficial relationships, clients can build a network that provides emotional and practical support.

The chart below lists the industries with the highest employment levels for social workers, according to data published in 2024 by the BLS.

What are some examples of social exchange theory in action within social work?

Accelerated online MSW programs provide examples of social exchange theory in action within social work, including counseling sessions and advocacy. Here are some ways you can use this theory in practice:

Counseling Sessions: Social workers help clients understand the rewards and costs of their personal relationships. This insight can guide clients to make healthier relationship choices.
Support Groups: Facilitating support groups where members exchange advice and encouragement. Participants gain emotional support and practical tips, enhancing their well-being.
Resource Allocation: Helping clients access community resources like food banks or housing assistance. Clients receive tangible benefits, improving their quality of life.
Conflict Mediation: Mediating disputes between family members by focusing on fairness and equity. This approach helps families resolve conflicts more effectively.
Behavioral Contracts: Creating contracts with clients that outline mutual expectations and rewards. These agreements help clients stay motivated and committed to their goals.
Job Placement Services: Assisting clients in finding employment with a good balance of rewards and costs. This can lead to greater job satisfaction and stability.
Advocacy: Advocating for clients' needs with service providers or government agencies. Clients receive the necessary support, improving their circumstances.
Crisis Intervention: Providing immediate support during a crisis, helping clients regain stability. The immediate rewards of safety and support help clients recover more quickly.
Parenting Classes: Teaching parents about the benefits of positive reinforcement and effective communication. These skills lead to healthier parent-child relationships.
Elderly Care: Supporting elderly clients in maintaining social connections to prevent isolation. The emotional and social rewards enhance their overall quality of life.

You will most likely encounter social exchange theory in social work and other related degrees. If you are ready to earn a relevant degree, consider accredited online bachelor degree programs for a quality online degree.

How does social exchange theory impact client-social worker relationships?

The social exchange theory can shape your relationship with clients by using it to improve respect, trust, and empathy. As one of the easiest online degrees that pay well, social work programs that delve into the social exchange theory can equip you with ways to build better relationships with your clients. Here are some strategies you can use to achieve a mutually beneficial relationship:

Mutual Respect: Clients and social workers develop mutual respect by recognizing each other's efforts. This mutual recognition enhances trust and cooperation.
Goal Alignment: Clients and social workers can align their efforts by understanding each other's needs and goals. This alignment ensures that both parties work towards the same objectives.
Empathy Building: Social workers use empathy to understand the client's perspective, fostering a supportive relationship. This understanding leads to more personalized and effective interventions.
Feedback Loop: Regular feedback between clients and social workers helps improve services. Clients feel heard, and social workers can adjust their strategies based on client input.
Commitment: Both clients and social workers commit to the relationship when they see tangible benefits. This commitment increases the likelihood of achieving desired outcomes.
Problem-Solving: Social workers and clients collaborate to solve problems, sharing ideas and resources, which leads to more effective solutions.
Emotional Support: Social workers provide emotional support, creating a safe space for clients. This support helps clients feel valued and understood.
Resource Sharing: Clients and social workers exchange information about valuable resources. This exchange helps clients access needed services more efficiently.
Trust Development: Consistent positive exchanges build trust over time. Trust is crucial for a solid and effective client-social worker relationship.
Empowerment: Social workers empower clients by recognizing and reinforcing their strengths. This empowerment encourages clients to take an active role in their own progress.

How can the social exchange theory enhance community outreach programs?

The social exchange theory can enhance community outreach programs by:

Building Trust: Outreach programs can build community trust by offering valuable resources and support. This trust encourages community members to engage with and participate in the programs.
Empowering Community Members: Outreach programs that consider the needs and preferences of community members empower them to take control of their own well-being. This empowerment fosters a sense of ownership and commitment to the programs.
Creating Mutual Benefit: Community outreach programs can create opportunities for mutual benefit between service providers and community members. Both parties benefit by offering valuable services or resources in exchange for community participation.
Fostering Collaboration: The social exchange theory encourages collaboration and cooperation between service providers and community members. Outreach programs can leverage this by involving community members in program planning and decision-making processes.
Addressing Specific Needs: Outreach programs can tailor their services to meet specific needs by understanding the unique rewards and costs experienced by community members. This targeted approach increases the effectiveness and impact of the programs. LCSW masters programs can give you the skills to tailor your services.

The chart below lists the top states for civic engagement and formal volunteering, which suggests more community outreach programs.

What role does cultural competency play in applying social exchange theory?

Cultural competency is crucial when applying the social exchange theory in social work, as it ensures that diverse cultural values, practices, and social norms are respected. Social workers must consider how culture influences a client's perception of costs and rewards in social exchanges. For instance, in collectivist cultures, community well-being might outweigh individual benefits, contrasting with the individualistic focus often assumed in the theory.

To apply social exchange theory effectively, social workers must engage in culturally sensitive practices, such as active listening and learning about a client's cultural background. This tailored approach not only improves relationships with clients but also enhances the outcomes of intervention strategies.

Additionally, integrating cultural competency into professional development is essential. For example, pursuing a specialized education—like earning a licensed clinical social worker degree online—provides social workers with the skills needed to apply social exchange theory across diverse populations. By doing so, practitioners can create more equitable and inclusive client support systems, strengthening the theory's practical relevance in real-world applications.

How does social exchange theory inform professional development in social work?

Professional development in social work greatly benefits from the foundational insights provided by social exchange theory. By understanding the dynamics of cost-benefit analyses in human interactions, social workers can deepen their reflective practice and enhance client advocacy strategies. This theoretical framework equips practitioners to recognize the motivations behind behavioral decisions, enabling more personalized and effective interventions.

Moreover, integrating social exchange theory into ongoing training ensures that professionals are adept at balancing client needs with resource constraints, a common challenge in the field. For example, advanced training programs in this area can help social workers identify when a client perceives a disparity in their relationships, enabling the practitioner to facilitate equitable social exchanges. Such skills are vital for fostering trust and long-term engagement with clients.

For those considering a formal education in social work or seeking further advancement, opting for a specialized social worker degree can provide the theoretical and ethical grounding necessary to apply social exchange theory in diverse contexts. Advanced degrees emphasize the interplay between theory and practice, preparing graduates to excel in both individual and systemic interventions. To explore degree options tailored for aspiring social workers, you can visit this resource: social worker degree.

How can social exchange theory advance career opportunities in social work?

By applying social exchange theory, social work professionals can strategically align decision-making with cost-benefit frameworks that inform both client service and organizational management. This targeted approach enhances the ability to secure roles in clinical practice, community program development, or policy leadership. Additionally, leveraging these insights can help practitioners identify funding opportunities, advocacy positions, and leadership trajectories that drive career advancement. For further guidance on career pathways, explore what can I do with a social worker degree.

How can social exchange theory influence career planning and salary expectations?

Social exchange theory’s focus on balancing costs and benefits offers social work professionals a strategic approach to career planning and negotiation. By understanding that professional relationships and workplace dynamics can be viewed as reciprocal exchanges, social workers can apply these principles to evaluate job offers, advocate for fair compensation, and negotiate benefits. This analytic framework encourages practitioners to assess potential career moves based on both tangible rewards and non-monetary gains, ultimately leading to more informed career decisions. For insights into compensation benchmarks, explore how much do social workers make.

What does current research reveal about the impact of social exchange theory on practice?

Recent empirical studies have examined the practical implications of social exchange theory, highlighting its utility in guiding client engagements and intervention strategies. Scholars have analyzed outcome-based evaluations that correlate structured exchange dynamics with improved service delivery in diverse social work settings. Additionally, comparative analyses in academic environments indicate that students exposed to theory-driven methodologies develop enhanced critical thinking and decision-making skills, which positively influence their professional practice. These findings support the integration of evidence-based approaches in training programs, including insights available in our guide on affordable MSW online programs.

How can social exchange theory improve supervision and mentoring in social work?

Effective supervision benefits from applying social exchange principles to build reciprocal, transparent relationships that enhance accountability and knowledge sharing between supervisors and supervisees. By employing balanced exchanges of constructive feedback, guidance, and professional support, supervisors can create environments where mentoring practices foster rapid skill development and reflective practice. This approach not only streamlines problem-solving in complex client scenarios but also reinforces career progression by aligning supervisory interactions with clear, measurable outcomes. For professionals seeking advanced opportunities, exploring jobs with a masters in social work can provide further insight into how these principles translate into tangible career benefits.

fv

Social work professionals are increasingly integrating digital tools to support efficient, data-driven client interactions. Technology enables the collection and analysis of client feedback and engagement metrics, offering precise insights into the cost‐benefit dynamics that underpin social exchange theory. Digital platforms and client management systems foster real-time evaluations of interventions, thereby improving decision-making and accountability. Innovative software solutions also facilitate secure multidisciplinary collaboration and supervision, ensuring that technological advances align seamlessly with ethical and professional standards. For further educational advancement in these digital competencies, consider exploring the DSW cheapest program online.

How can we measure the effectiveness of social exchange theory interventions in social work?

Social workers can evaluate the impact of using social exchange theory by implementing structured outcome measures and feedback mechanisms. Practitioners may employ standardized assessment tools—such as client satisfaction surveys, behavioral outcome evaluations, and longitudinal follow-up studies—to determine whether interventions are yielding balanced, mutually beneficial exchanges. This approach supports data-driven decision-making and facilitates continuous improvements in practice. Additionally, incorporating digital analytics and case study methodologies helps verify if adjustments in service delivery reduce disparities and enhance client empowerment. For a comprehensive review of how advanced academic programs are integrating such evaluation techniques into their training, refer to the best MSW online advanced standing programs.

What are the future directions for social exchange theory in social work?

Ongoing research is exploring innovative applications of social exchange theory to address evolving challenges in social work. Emerging studies are examining how digital tools and data analytics can enhance cost-benefit assessments in client interactions, support tailored intervention strategies, and improve outcome measurements. Scholars are also advocating for interdisciplinary approaches that integrate economic, sociocultural, and technological perspectives to foster more resilient community support systems. These advances may create new opportunities in jobs in health and human services, reinforcing the theory’s relevance in adapting professional practices to a dynamic social environment.

What are the ethical considerations when applying social exchange theory with clients?

When applying the social exchange theory with clients, you must consider the ethical implications on their autonomy, culture, and privacy. Social workers have a 9% employment growth rate, which means that it is essential for current students to be aware of ethical considerations when putting theory into practice. Here are several ethical considerations to keep in mind:

Confidentiality: Social workers must maintain client confidentiality. Sharing information without permission can damage trust and harm the client.
Informed Consent: Clients should fully understand how the social exchange theory applies to their case. Social workers must explain the approach clearly and obtain their consent.
Respect for Autonomy: Clients have the right to make their own decisions. Social workers should support clients’ autonomy and avoid pressuring them into actions they’re not comfortable with.
Non-Exploitation: Social workers must ensure they are not exploiting clients. The focus should be on helping clients rather than gaining personal benefits.
Cultural Sensitivity: Applying the social exchange theory should respect clients’ cultural backgrounds and values. Social workers need to be aware of and sensitive to cultural differences.
Power Dynamics: Be mindful of the inherent power imbalance in client-social worker relationships. Social workers should strive to empower clients rather than dominate the relationship.
Fairness and Equity: Ensure social workers and clients exchange fairly. Clients should feel they are receiving as much support as they are giving.
Transparency: Social workers should be transparent about their methods and intentions. Clients have the right to know how decisions affecting them are made.
Beneficence: The primary goal should always be to benefit the client. Social workers must prioritize the client’s well-being in all exchanges.
Avoiding Harm: Ensure that applying the social exchange theory does not inadvertently harm the client. Social workers should continually assess and mitigate any potential negative impacts.

What are the main criticisms of the social exchange theory?

The main criticisms of the social exchange theory include its overemphasis on rationality. Here's a discussion on each of its criticisms:

Overemphasis on Rationality: Critics argue that the theory assumes people always make rational decisions to maximize rewards and minimize costs. In reality, emotions and irrational factors often influence human behavior.
Simplistic View of Relationships: The theory tends to simplify complex human relationships by reducing them to mere transactions. This overlooks the depth and nuance of interpersonal connections.
Cultural Bias: The social exchange theory is rooted in Western, individualistic values. It may not adequately account for collectivist cultures where community and relationships are valued differently.
Neglect of Altruism: The theory underplays the role of altruism and selfless behavior in relationships. Many people act out of genuine concern for others without considering personal gains.
Limited Scope: The social exchange theory mainly focuses on immediate, tangible rewards and costs. It often ignores long-term benefits and abstract rewards, like personal growth or emotional fulfillment.
Power Imbalance: Critics highlight that the theory doesn't sufficiently address power imbalances in relationships. It can overlook how individuals with less power may be exploited or disadvantaged.
Static Analysis: The theory tends to provide a static snapshot of relationships. It doesn't fully capture how relationships evolve and how past interactions influence current behavior.
Ethical Concerns: Applying the theory in practice can raise ethical issues, such as manipulating relationships for desired outcomes. This can undermine trust and authenticity in relationships.
Measurement Difficulties: Quantifying rewards and costs can be challenging. The subjective nature of what individuals perceive as rewarding or costly makes it difficult to apply the theory consistently.

How do social workers address the limitations of the social exchange theory?

Social workers address the limitations of the social exchange theory by creating strategies to counteract the challenges. The best bachelor's degrees in social work will give you strategies to address these limitations. Here are some:

Incorporating Emotional Insights: Social workers acknowledge the role of emotions in decision-making. By understanding clients' emotional needs and responses, they provide a more holistic approach.
Recognizing Complexity: Social workers look beyond the simplistic transactional view. They consider the depth and nuances of clients' relationships and life situations.
Cultural Sensitivity: They adapt their methods to fit different cultural contexts. Social workers respect and incorporate clients' cultural values and community norms in their practice.
Valuing Altruism: Social workers recognize and encourage selfless behavior. They understand that clients may act out of genuine concern for others without expecting personal gains.
Balancing Power: Social workers actively work to address power imbalances. They empower clients, ensuring they have a voice and control in decision-making.
Dynamic Approach: Social workers use a dynamic approach to relationships. They consider how past interactions and experiences influence current behavior and future possibilities.
Multidisciplinary Approaches: Social workers integrate other theories and methods. They create more comprehensive strategies by combining the social exchange theory with other frameworks. Social workers may also explore more training to better implement multidisciplinary strategies. For instance, child social workers may be interested in taking a PhD in education.
Client-Centered Focus: Social workers maintain a client-centered focus. They ensure that clients' unique experiences, preferences, and needs guide the intervention process.

Social work relies on several foundational principles that you can expect to study as you proceed with your education. In addition to social exchange theory, you are expected to have a good grasp of the following:

How does social exchange theory influence policy-making in social work?

Social exchange theory can be a valuable tool for policymakers designing social work programs and policies. By understanding the costs and rewards involved in social exchanges, policymakers can create programs that effectively incentivize participation and improve outcomes for clients. Here are some ways social exchange theory influences policy-making in social work:

Incentivizing Participation:
- Policymakers can design programs that offer clear benefits to encourage people to participate. For example, offering financial incentives for attending job training programs can motivate individuals to complete the training, as the perceived rewards (job opportunities) outweigh the costs (time and effort).
Tailoring Support Based on Client Needs:
- Using social exchange theory, policies can be designed to address the specific needs of different client groups. By identifying what clients value most (e.g., access to healthcare, job placement services), social workers can allocate resources more effectively, maximizing the benefits for clients.
Balancing Costs and Rewards in Service Delivery:
- Policies can be crafted to ensure that clients experience more rewards than costs in engaging with social services. For instance, reducing bureaucratic hurdles and simplifying application processes for welfare programs can minimize the perceived costs, increasing client satisfaction and participation.
Encouraging Community Involvement:
- Programs can be designed to offer mutual benefits for both service providers and community members. For example, community outreach programs might encourage volunteerism by offering rewards such as skills training, recognition, or networking opportunities, making the cost of volunteering (time and effort) worthwhile.
Addressing Power Imbalances:
- Policies should be structured to empower clients by increasing their perceived benefits and reducing the costs associated with accessing services. This could involve measures such as providing transportation vouchers for clients to attend appointments or offering flexible service hours.
Building Sustainable Programs Through Feedback Loops:
- Incorporating client feedback into program development helps ensure that the rewards align with client expectations and needs. This continuous evaluation allows for adjustments that make the programs more appealing and effective over time.
Reducing Stigma Through Positive Reinforcement:
- Policies can include positive reinforcement strategies to encourage clients to engage in healthy behaviors without feeling stigmatized. For example, rewarding clients for attending mental health counseling sessions with small incentives can shift the focus from cost (time, potential embarrassment) to reward (improvement in well-being).

How to integrate social exchange theory into social work curricula

Consider a social work student who is learning about substance abuse treatment. By applying social exchange theory, the student can analyze the costs and benefits of substance use for individuals and families. They can then develop treatment plans that focus on maximizing the rewards of sobriety (e.g., improved health, stronger relationships) while minimizing the costs (e.g., withdrawal symptoms, social stigma).

Social work programs and other affordable online bsw programs often integrate social exchange theory into their curricula to help students develop a deeper understanding of:

Human Behavior: Students learn how individuals weigh costs and benefits in their decisions, influencing their behavior and relationships.
Interpersonal Dynamics: The theory helps students analyze power dynamics, reciprocity, and the impact of cultural factors on social interactions.
Client-Worker Relationships: Understanding the principles of social exchange can enhance the quality of relationships between social workers and clients, fostering trust and collaboration.
Program Evaluation: Social exchange theory can be applied to evaluate the effectiveness of social programs by assessing the balance of costs and benefits for participants.
Policy Analysis: By analyzing the costs and benefits of various social policies, students can develop informed opinions and advocate for policies that promote social justice.

Other Things You Should Know About the Social Exchange Theory in Social Work

Can you think of examples of social exchange theory from your own life?

One example of the social exchange theory in my life is when I helped a friend move to a new apartment. I spent my time and energy assisting them with packing and lifting heavy boxes. In return, my friend expressed gratitude and offered to help me with a future task. This exchange of favors strengthened our friendship and created a sense of mutual support.

What is an example of social exchange theory in the media?

TV shows and movies often depict the social exchange theory. In these stories, characters form alliances or make deals to achieve their goals. For example, a detective might negotiate with a criminal informant in a crime drama. The detective may offer protection or leniency in exchange for valuable information. Both parties think about the risks and rewards of their interactions. They engage in a social exchange where each tries to maximize their benefits while minimizing costs.

What is an example of social exchange theory in the workplace?

An example of the social exchange theory in the workplace is when coworkers collaborate on a project. Each team member contributes their skills, time, and effort to achieve a common goal. They may even go as far as enrolling in a 6 month MBA program to contribute more knowledge and skills. In return, they expect recognition for their contributions, opportunities for advancement, or support from their colleagues when needed. This mutual exchange of resources and support strengthens teamwork and fosters a positive work environment.

How can policymakers use the social exchange theory to create effective social programs?

Policymakers can use the social exchange theory to create effective social programs. To do this, they should consider the needs and motivations of the people they want to help. Policymakers can encourage participation and make the programs more effective by offering valuable incentives or benefits, like access to resources or opportunities for personal growth. In addition, involving community members in planning and decision-making can make people feel more connected to the program and help ensure its success.

References:

Ahmad, R., Nawaz, M. R., Ishaq, M. I., Khan, M. M., & Ashraf, H. A. (2023). Social exchange theory: Systematic review and future directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. Frontiers.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (2024a). 21-1029 Social Workers, All Other. Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2023. BLS.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (2024b). Social Workers. Occupational Outlook Handbook. BLS.
Census Bureau. (2023). At Height of Pandemic, More Than Half of People Age 16 and Over Helped Neighbors, 23% Formally Volunteered. Volunteering in America. Census.gov.
Cropanzano, R., Anthony, E. L., Daniels, S. R., & Hall, A. V. (2017). Social Exchange Theory: A Critical Review with Theoretical Remedies. The Academy of Management Annals, 11(1), 479–516. AMA.
Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63(6), 597–606. Purdue University.
Stafford, L., & Kuiper, K. (2021). Social exchange theories. In Engaging Theories in Interpersonal Communication (pp. 379–390). Taylor & Francis Group.
Zippia. (2024). Social Worker Demographics and Statistics in the US. Zippia.